Vernacular Language Varieties in Educational Settings: Research and Development

by Reaser & Temple Adger

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=8nc6nRRbMSQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA161&dq=%22dialect+awareness%22&ots=nCGljSuW9F&sig=CRuVGCNVUiWIL4oH_cNeo1xCaXQ#v=onepage&q=%22dialect%20awareness%22&f=false

There is need for curriculum for teachers not specially trained in linguistics to teach acceptance of dialect diversity.

So maybe I can create a curriculum for FYC teachers?

A Critical Spproach to Standard English

by Anne Lobeck
In Language in the Schools

Traditional, prescriptive grammar is still taught in schools although it doesn't accurately describe the rules for Standard English. "Public attitudes support traditional approaches."

Lobeck goes on to explain how teaching about dialects and registers can help students more than teaching "traditional" grammar.

Language awareness

This book has a very different idea of language awareness. COmposition studies and linguists use the term very differently.

http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/newcatalog.aspx?isbn=0312463162&disc=English&course=Composition&detail=toc

Diversity, Ideology, and Teaching Writing

http://www.jstor.org/stable/357563

by Maxine Hairston

She thinks it's bad for FYC teachers to teach about politics or diversity. She highlights Marxism in FYC courses and says that English departments shouldn't let literary critics run things. She says we should just teach writing, period, free of democratic ideals.

A Review of Developmental and Applied Language Research on African American Children: From a Deficit to Difference Perspective on Dialect Differences

by stockman

because absence of inflectional morphology and substitution of /f/ for /th/ is a symptom of language disorders in native speakers of SAE, AAVE speaking children are sometimes sent to special ed. Clinicians need to know about dialects!

Unendangered dialects, endanegred people

by Labov

"The argument of this paper may be outlined as follows:
• African American Vernacular English [AAVE] is not an endangered dialect; on
the contrary, it is continuing to develop and diverge from other dialects.
• The primary condition for such divergence is residential segregation.
• Residential segregation, combined with increasing poverty, has led to a
deterioration of many features of social life in the inner cities.
• In these conditions, a majority of children in inner city schools are failing to learn
to read, with a developing cycle of poverty, crime and shorter life span.
• A reduction of residential segregation will lead to greater contact between
speakers of AAVE and speakers of other dialects.
• If at some future date, the social conditions that favor the divergence of AAVE"

Sustaining language diversity

by Wolfram

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=eEjl6gZfmhwC&oi=fnd&pg=PA187&dq=dialect+awareness&ots=is4C16fJ70&sig=bmJ4btBUqOsAiCAynpX_EYEKex4#v=onepage&q=dialect%20awareness&f=false

Linguists are obligated to get the message of language diversity out. Unfortunately, service is devalued in the academy.

There is a market for documentaries on language diversity.

Teachin’ Good: Using Informal Language as a Bridge to Standard English in the Classroom

by Marlow

Teachers shouldn't correct nonstandard english in the classroom because it doesn't help students codeswitch. Includes background info on dialects in the classroom and practical advice for teachers

inStructorS tutoring their oWn StudentS in the Writing center: a conFlict oF intereSt?

by jennifer jefferson

Teachers shouldn't tutor their own students on a paper for that class.

the third Voice in the SeSSion: helping StudentS interpret teacherS’ commentS on their paperS

by Auten and Pasterkiewicz

About how students read teachers' comments.
1. STUDENTS NEED TO UNDERSTAND THE REASON FOR COMMENTINg
AND THE WAYS WRITERS CAN MAkE gOOD USE OF COMMENTS.
2. CONSULTANTS NEED TO REMEMbER THAT
A TEACHER’S ADVICE CAN CONFUSE OR
OVERWHELM A STUDENT.

3. A SESSION AbOUT TEACHER COMMENTS CAN gET DERAILED
WHEN A STUDENT MISREADS gUIDANCE AS DISAPPROVAL AND
REJECTION OF THEIR IDEAS.

RECEPTIVE AND PRODUCTIVE VOCABULARY SIZES OF L2 LEARNERS

Webb
1. The author is working within the Processing approach of cognitive linguistics. I know this because he is interested in the limits of human vocabulary, and wants to know what the human mind, independent of social circumstances, is capable of.
2. This article investigates transition theory, as the author often contrasts L1 learners to L2 learners and is interested in SLA.
3. This article pretty much confirmed something I already knew. There are passive bilinguals whose entire L2 vocabularies are receptive and non-productive. Of course learners can understand more than they can speak: almost every L2 learner knows the feeling of tip-of-the-tongue. I suppose it’s interesting that Webb spent so much time confirming an aspect of SLA that I had always simply assumed was true.

L2 Vocabulary Learning From Context: Strategies, Knowledge Sources, and Their Relationship With Success in L2 Lexical Inferencing

Nassaji
1. Because the author uses the think-aloud technique and appears to consider the research subjects as individual processing machines unconnected to their surroundings, I believe this article fits within the cognitive approach.
2. The author addresses transition theory by studying how second language readers guess at the meanings of unknown words.
3. I found it very interesting that Nassaji did not advocate any one strategy, but recognized that no one strategy was successful. Nassaji goes on to recognize that the strategy of using contextual clues has been overused in ESL classrooms. I too am guilty of overteaching using context. I believe any teaching strategy can be overemphasized, and none is the correct answer. I liked how Nassaji did not call for a radical anti-context overhaul, but suggested that less emphasis be placed on using contextual clues. This moderation reflects well on the field; more researchers should exercise this much restraint when criticizing a teaching method.

Rate of Acquiring and Processing L2 Color Words in Relation to L1 Phonological Awareness

Hu
1. This article falls within processing theory (and, more specifically, as described in our book, into the Lexical/Functional Grammar), as the authors attempt to account for both ELLs’ grammar and the cognitive processing speed and accuracy of their grammars. The authors also discuss saliency, and therefore also write within the Teachability Hypothesis.
2. This article addresses Transition theory, as it concentrates on language learners’ processing models.
3. I think this study lends support to the Hierarchical nature of language, in that people who have trouble with lower strata of language, like phonology, will also have trouble with higher levels of the hierarchy, like vocabulary. I would not be surprised if the author found that students who have poor phonological awareness have trouble at all levels of the grammar.

Do Language Learners Recognize Pragmatic Violations? Pragmatic Versus Grammatical Awareness in Instructed L2 Learning"

Bardovi-Harlig
1. These authors take both a functional/pragmatic perspective, as they are interested in ELLs’ SL pragmatic competence, and a sociolinguistic perspective, as they consider the authors’ sociocultural contexts (ESL or EFL). This article was an interesting amalgamation of social approaches.
2. The article addresses transition theory. It is interested in learning how learners’ contexts affect their attitudes towards pragmatic acceptability.
3. I find it interesting that the authors suggest awareness-raising in the pedagogy section, since they did not directly test awareness-raising! My literature search ofr the paper for this class, and my experience teaching, suggest to me that awareness-raising seems like an easy answer for many language teachers. It allows them to continue teaching without switching to a more methodologically sound but perhaps more cutting-edge and radical teaching method. Overall, though, I liked this article. It had a large N and tested something I had not really considered testing before.

Consistency and variation in second language acquisition

Kanno
1. Because Kanno states that “I take the position that UG is intact and fully
present in the acquisition device of adult second language learners,” but their language learning is not as consistent over time, Kanno supports the Partial Access Hypothesis in the UG theoretical pproach.
2. The article addresses transition theory because it is concerned with the nature of SLA and how it compares to FLA.
3. I found nothing interesting or important about this article. That is unusual; I have been enjoying these articles thus far. The only thing the author did was prove that sometimes language learners make mistakes, and everyone already knows that. I think the author needs to realize that UG is not the answer to all SLA questions.

INPUT, INTERACTION, AND SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Mackey
1. The article tests Long’s Interaction Hypothesis and is based on assumptions associated with Input and Interaction approaches (e.g., input should be both comprehensible and challenging, both input and output are essential for SLA).
2. The article addresses property theory. It tests if Long’s Interaction Hypothesis is true by conducting a controlled experiment to determine if conversations can facilitate SLA. Unsurprisingly, yes, they can.
3. It was very interesting that Mackey tested both task-based conversational partners and learners with scripted conversations. I remember reading those in high school Spanish. The idea is that students cannot yet from their own sentences; it’s like one step above Grammar-Translation, which is of course terrible. I wish this study had had more participants, but it I certainly important and interesting empirical evidence that meaningful interaction is important. Actually, I’ve already read this article at some point in my past; at Murray State my professors were all about the Communicative Approach, so of course they loved “negotiating meaning.”

sound to meaning correspondences facilitate word learning

Nygaard et al. 2009

1. This article appears to fall into the processing theories category of cognitive approaches to SLA. While most cognitive theorists are concerned with transition theories and this one (I think) is driven by property theory, the authors of this article assume that language ability is innate and also that processing time will decrease as practice increases. These assumptions are central to processing theories of cognition.

2. The article addresses property theory because it challenges an assumption about the nature of natural language—that the sound-symbol relationship is arbitrary—and is not primarily concerned with how people acquire language. The authors do note that sensitivity to cross-linguistic sound symbols can facilitate language learning, but they are actually focused more on what this means in terms of the nature of human languages.

3. I find the entire article fascinating and inherently significant. Challenging long-held assumptions is always important and this study introduces a very mysterious phenomenon. It reminds me of those studies that try to show that people have some ESP. It sends a chill down my spine. This is a great article.

ACQUIRING /R/ IN CONTEXT

Colantoni & Steele 2007

1. This article seeks to explain the order of acquisition of a certain target allophonic phoneme based on the Universal Grammar approach. The authors explain English-speaking French language learners’ errors in terms of order of acquisition and the introduction and conclusion imply that this order of acquisition based on complicated principles of aerophonetics might be universal across all learners of all languages.

2. The article addresses property theory because it takes as a basic assumption that in order to generalize findings found for ESL, it is necessary to “expand the empirical base to include an even greater variety of target languages.” The authors hope to deduce universal constraints from this study and others like it.

3. While I believe the authors focused on universal constraints on targetlike production of French rhotics, I was most interested in the finding that just the act of production gives the language learners practice with the target phonemes and helps them move toward more targetlike production. I feel that this indirectly supports Swain’s Output Hypothesis.

Training English Word-final Palatals to Korean Speakers of English

Yeon 2008

Trained Korean ESL students who came to the US after critical period in ending syllables in "sh" and "ch." FOund that intensive training and focused learning helped production and perception.

1. The article is based on a connectionist theory of SLA. Yeon based his or her treatment on the assumption that repeated exposure to the target forms and frequent practice with perceiving and producing these forms might improve the learners; production and production of the forms. While Yeon does not mention the neural networks which might be strengthened by the training, the underlying assumption is that frequent and intensive practice is necessary for the acquisition of rule-governed behavior.

2. The article addresses transition theory, as it attempts to identify classroom tasks that can aid in listening and speaking activities for Korean English language learners.

3. The most significant aspect of this study is that all the learners “had come to the US after critical period” (53) and yet benefitted from the intensive perception training. Yeon has found not only that the critical period is not necessarily the “cut-off for language learning,” but also has identified a classroom activity for Korean ELLs that can eradicate this common error.

Current Trends in Research Methodology and Statistics in Applied Linguistics

Lazaraton

The most widely used statistical test carried out in linguistics publications is ANOVA, which is a troubling finding since ANOVA has a number of assumptions which were probably not all met in every study.

Almost every study used quantitative data, but many did not publish descriptive statistics!

Putative sex differences in verbal abilities and language cortext: A critical review

by Wallentin

This author reviewed many studies of gender differences in the brain. He found that there are some observed differences in early childhood and that some psychological problems are more likely to strike males than females, but other than that, there are no real differences in male and female brains, despite what is often printed in textbooks.

The Myth of Mars and Venus

One linguist, Deborah Cameron (2009), interprets Hyde’s (2005) findings as meaning that women and men, in truth, have more in common than pop psychologists’ books might have us believe. She writes to a popular audience and tries to convince laypeople that “evolutionary biology” is mere conjecture, and that writers like Tannen (1991) and Brizendine (2006), who emphasize the differences, are doing more harm than good. However, Cameron (2009) relies heavily on James & Drakich’s (1993) findings on amount of talk and on Hyde’s (2005) finding that the overall effect of gender on differences in communication is small. While Cameron is not fabricating numbers ala Brizendine (2006), she conveniently ignores all of Leaper’s studies that found significant differences in male and female styles of speech.

With the publication of Cameron’s The Myth of Mars and Venus (2009) as a popular/linguistic rival to Tannen’s You Just Don’t Understand (1991), two camps were created. They use different sets of data to justify different conclusions about gender’s effect on amount of talk. Only time will tell which school of thought will fade into history and which will prove lasting, or if, like Universal Grammar, one camp digs in, establishes its own universities, and refuses to listen to others in the field.

The Gender Similarities Hypothesis.

Hyde (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of the most up-to-date and methodologically sound 46 meta-analyses that examined psychological gender differences. She examined Leaper & Smith (2004) and Hyde & Linn (1988); she did not include any other study examined in this paper in her meta-analysis. Hyde found that “despite Tannen’s (1991) assertions, gender differences in most aspects of communication are small” (p. 586). The five meta-analyses concerning communication differences in gender, with a total of 13 different areas, had an averaged effect size (Cohen’s d ) of -.213, which according to Cohen’s benchmarks, is a small difference. Two of these communication meta-analyses did not study language: one examined studies on smiling and the other studied facial expression processing. The three meta-analyses concerned with language examined interruptions, talkativeness and whether the talk was affiliative or assertive (a different meta-analysis than Leaper and Sanders’ meta-analysis, discussed above), and self-disclosure. I computed that the average Cohen’s d of these three meta-analyses and their combined eight areas was -.039, which is decidedly insignificant. Hyde found some areas where the differences were statistically significant, but these areas were not related to amount of talk (they included throwing distance and amount of masturbation).

Gender differences in verbal ability: a meta-analysis.

Hyde & Linn (1988) set out to examine an adage in psychology that has been oft-repeated and seldom examined: that girls have better verbal abilities than boys. Their study included dissertations and unpublished studies, which are accessible via ERIC; all told, they examined 165 studies. The authors identified five different skills that might be measured in tests of verbal ability: definition retrieval, retrieval of names from a picture stimulus, creating relations between words, filtering for relevant information, and measures of verbal production. Unfortunately, Hyde & Linn (1988) did not report running tests without statistical outliers, instead simply excluding one study based on, apparently, their own judgment. They conclude, “that there are no gender differences in verbal ability, at least at this time, in American culture, in the standard ways that verbal ability has been measured” (p. 62). The verbal production subtests indicated that females performed better on tests that measure quality of production, but that males produced more in terms of “total talking time” (p. 64).

Race and gender in current American politics: A discourse-analysis perspective.

At least one study combined qualitative rhetorical analysis with quantitative word counts: Suleiman & O’Connell (2008) examined political guests on Larry King’s talk show. They found that the race of guests influenced the amount of non-standard speech they felt comfortable using, with Barack Obama, Condoleeza Rice, Hilary Clinton, and Colin Powell all using fewer non-standard forms than Bill Clinton. I mention this to note that researchers are beginning to take other sociological variables into account when examining discourse; I found this to be rare even in current studies. Suleiman and O’Connell’s quantitative analysis found that “Bill Clinton consistently talks the most, and Hillary Clinton the least” (p. 381). They note that this is consistent with Mehl’s finding that, contrary to the popular myth, women do not speak more than men. By comparing the amount of talk generated by political guests on a talk show to Mehl’s findings, the authors imply that the political interviewees verbal production can be generalized to the larger American population.

Gender differences across correlated corpora: Preliminary results.

Sabin, Goodwin, Goldstein-Stewart, & Pereira (2008) examined six different genres on the internet and found, consistent with Mehl (2007), no difference in amount of words generated by male and female authors, except “males generated significantly larger amounts of text than females on the topic of the legalization of marijuana” (p. 209).

Symbolic Capital in a Virtual Heterosexual Market.

Susan Herring studies computer-mediated communication and found that Italian women sending text message to a TV program sent longer text messages and used more non-standard typed methods of expressions, like emoticons and non-standard punctuation (Herring & Zelenkauskaite, 2009).

Are women really more talkative than men?

One study regarding the talkativeness of males and females has attracted the same news outlets as Brizendine’s book. This study has been highly influential, in both academic and in non-academic spheres. Mehl (2007) paid university students to wear an unobtrusive recording device for several days. The students removed the device only when activities might damage it (during showers, playing sports, etc.). Mehl found no statistically significant difference in the amount of words spoken by men and women. He readily admits that the study is limited because all the participants were university students.

Of all the studies examined in this paper, Mehl’s seems most like the type of measurement that is most likely to answer the question of whether men or women talk more. The study is not without its problems: participants were able to take off the recorder at any time or to erase any speech they did not wish the researchers to hear; also, the researchers apparently used a convenient sample of undergraduates. However, it took samples of speech in the most natural of environments: the participants’ daily lives. This is a great improvement over controlled, laboratory experiments measuring amounts of speech or even observed behavior in homes because the unobtrusiveness of the device is the closest thing we have yet to the proverbial “fly on the wall.”

More studies like Mehl’s are needed to determine if his results are generalizable to the larger population. The recording device he used sampled the actual ambient noise, allowing him to record naturalistic data without a constructed context; the device was also unobtrusive, which removed problems related to the “observer’s paradox” of trying to observe a natural behavior which changes when it is observed. When Mehl’s study is replicated with other, non-undergraduate populations, the amount of talk from each sub-population can be meta-analyzed and we can determine who talks more (while wearing the recording device). Until then, the academic community cannot consider the issue completely resolved.

The results of Mehl’s 2007 study were published in various popular news sources, like Reuters, ABC News, Associated Content, and National Public Radio. Particularly interesting are the comments at the end of the stories, which can erupt into heated arguments. At the end of Scientific American’s online summary of Mehl’s findings, Kenji1960 (2009) wrote: “’There are lies, Damn lies, and then there are statistics.’ Smart people can make statistics say anything they want. I know how long my wife talks on the phone to her friends.”

Kenji1960’s comment shows that the cultural myth bears more weight than empirical studies, which he obviously does not trust. Despite empirical evidence to the contrary, judging form other comments posted on other popular news sites, the cultural myth that women speak more than men appears to be alive and well. In order to combat the stereotype and this persistent cultural myth, we’ll need more than just solid methodology and publication in Scientific American. I don’t know what exactly Kenji1960 will find convincing, but if the academic community wants to do work which benefits society by dispelling stereotypes, we must reach out to people distrustful of us.

A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Variations in Children’s Language Use: Talkativeness, Affiliative Speech, and Assertive Speech

Leaper & Smith (2004) conducted a meta-analysis similar to the one done in Leaper & Ayres, but concentrating on children’s talkativeness and affiliative versus assertive speech. They did not use unpublished studies and ran trimming tests, which determined that the outliers did not bias the results. A meta-analysis of 73 studies investigating talkativeness found that “girls were significantly more talkative than boys” (p. 994). Although this finding was determined to be statistically significant, “it was relatively negligible in magnitude,” meaning that the effect size was too small to be generalizable. The most important moderator was interaction partner. When the child spoke to an adult, girls were far more talkative than boys and this finding was significant both in effect size and statistically. Girls used more affiliative speech than did boys, although this finding also had a small magnitude and effect sizes were greatly increased depending on contextual factors (structured or unstructured activities, presence of video recorder, etc.). Boys were slightly more likely than girls to use assertive speech, and this effect increased depending on group size, whether the interaction took place in the home, and other contextual variables.

Leaper & Smith (2004) note that girls are more talkative at all age levels except between five and nine years, when the difference is negligible (d=.06). Both genders engaged in more assertive speech in groups while more affiliative speech was observed in dyads. Older children were more likely to use gendered speech (affiliative for girls and assertive for boys) in single-sex groups than in mixed-sex groups. Boys used more assertive speech at home than in labs. Leaper & Smith’s (2004) meta-analysis is comparable to James & Drakich’s (1993) meta-analysis in that gender as a variable cannot account for the variation in generally male (dominant or assertive) versus generally female (cooperative or affiliative) styles of speech.

Moderators of Gender Effects on Parent’s Talk to Their Children: A Meta-Analysis

Another meta-analysis examined the specialized context of parents’ language with their children. They did not include self-report studies in their meta-analysis, and as a result had significantly different findings from earlier parent-child speech meta-analyses. Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders (1998) identified two types of speech: supportive speech, which they defined as “positively responsive,” was associated with mothers’ speech and is comparable to Leaper & Ayres’ affiliative speech; and directive speech, which the authors associated with fathers’ speech and is comparable to assertive speech (although Leaper & Ayres’ “assertive speech” included criticism and giving information, which were not included in Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders’ “directive speech”). The authors’ findings included: 1) “mothers tended to use more supportive language strategies with their children than did fathers;” 2) fathers used more directive and informative language as well as asked more questions; 3) mothers were more talkative with daughters than with sons (p. 12).

Significantly for the focus of this paper, Leaper, Anderson, & Sanders (1998) found that “In general, mothers were more likely to demonstrate higher amounts of verbal interaction” (p. 21): mothers spoke to their children more. This is in line with Leaper & Ayres’ (2007) findings that the presence of a child was a significant moderator in women’s talkativeness.

A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Variations in Adults’ Language Use: Talkativeness, Affiliative Speech, and Assertive Speech.

Leaper and Ayres’ 2007 meta-analysis examined 63 published studies that were methodologically sound (e.g., actually sampled data instead of relying on intuition) and peer-reviewed in either journals or books. The authors examined not only the amount of words spoken by each gender but also categorized the amount of words spoken into two categories: affiliative speech, which is primarily concerned with the sociocultural relationship of the interlocutors (e.g., compliments, back channeling, and probing questions); and assertive speech, which is persuasive or controlling (e.g., criticism, explanations, and, in one case, a verbal threat). These two categories are similar to James & Drakich’s (1993) “cooperative” and “dominant” styles of speech. The authors ran separate tests for single-sex versus mixed-group results and also removed the outliers at 10% and 20%. Leaper & Ayres concluded that, overall, “men were significantly more talkative than women”; however, “as predicted, women used significantly more affiliative speech than men” and “men used significantly more assertive speech” (p. 351). These findings do not corrorborate James & Drakich’s (1993) findings. In certain contexts, Leaper & Ayres (2007) found women to be more talkative than men, notably when a child was present or children were the topic of conversation, and during self-disclosure. The authors note that these are stereotypically envisioned as female domains, and so women’s talkativeness fit into our society’s gendered norms.

Tutors as Teacher: Assisting ESL/EFL Students in the Writing Center

by thonus

General stuff: contrastive rhetoric, conflicting agendas. Its main benefits is that separates ideas about teaching ESL into 3 categories: Focus on form (contrastive rhetoric), focus on the writer (first negotiate meaning then the client self-corrects grammar; good references here), and focus on the reader (writing for academic community).

Understanding gender differences in amount of talk

To my knowledge, the earliest meta-analysis to examine which gender speaks more was James & Drakich’s chapter in Gender and Conversational Interaction (1993). They found that most studies found that men speak more than women, and their findings did not support the widelyheld view that men’s speech is “dominant” and women’s speech is “cooperative.” This was probably the most widely cited meta-analysis, although it only surveyed 56 studies; meta-analyses published since have examined more and do not support James & Drakich’s findings.

Does the GRE predict meaningful success in the graduate training of psychologists?

by Sternburg and Williams
at Yale

They tried to correlate GRE scores with grades, professor ratings, and dissertation ratings.

"In sum, GRE scores were found to be modest predictors of first-year but not second-year grades in our graduate program, both for men and for women. However, only the GRE Analytical test score was found to predict more consequential evaluations of student performance and only for men."

Zombies, Malls, and the Consumerism Debate: George Romero's Dawn of the Dead

by Stephen Harper

Romero says that malls and a consumer culture make us into zombies.

Raising the Dead

by Kyle Bishop in http://heldref-publications.metapress.com/media/6a86qnuqypdxfqqyhnr2/contributions/3/4/6/k/346k07hv3887qrhn.pdf

An examination of why zombies fascinate us. Goes into history: from actual Voudan practice to the film WHite Zombie, then pulp comics, then Romero.

Zombies reflect our fear that deep down we are nothing but appetite. They are uncanny in Freudian sense because they are dead, and yet they move. They sometimes have the faces of our friends and family who have been turned.

They are essentially cinematic because they are so graphic.

The Power of Gender Ideologies in Discourse

by Susan U. Phillips

In Tonga, there are 3 gender ideologies: sister-brother, wife-husband, and sweetheart-sweetheart. The mother-son or father-daughter relationship is not as important. In Tonga, sisters are superior to their brothers, but husbands are superior to their wives.

Phillips goes over different ways of interpreting gender ideologies in a historical literature review.

INterest in gender ideologies began in the 1960s and 1970s, when feminists took Marxist philosophy and replaced class with gender. Lakoff brought the argument into linguistics.

Anthropology reformulated the argument in terms of public and private spheres, dichotomizing male and female spaces. Keenan/Ochs paper on Malagasy falls into this genre of research.

The anthropological literature found that female discourse often took the form of specific genres. The identification of genres led to interest in the diversity of gender ideologies.

The underlying basis of all this research is the idea that women have different thoughts than men.

More recent: gender ideologies as related to class and race, the gendering of workplaces, in terms of communities of practice and institutions, and in nations.

The Language of Women in Korean and English

by sung-yun park

This article was very influenced by Lakoff.

Like English, Korean females are considered to speak more politely. Stereotypical female speech will use more -yo and less plain verb forms, very weak curses, more adverbs of degree, and a more varied intonation.

Sexuality as identity: Gay and lesbian language

by Cameron and Kulick

Research on the language of gays went through 4 stages:

1. 1920s-1940s. seeing it as a pathology and the language emphasized its strangeness. (Also, at that time it was thought that gays actually desired sex with the opposite sex). Focus on vocabulary and gender inevrsion
   
2. 1950s-1960s. Researchers drew a division between old-fashioned "princesses" and young gay brothers, idealizing white middle-class speech.
3. 1970s-mid 1990s. Influenced by literature on ethnic speech varieties, group cohesion as a gay identity and unity.
4. 1990s to present. Queer theory: looking at variety and diversity in gay identity. Identity is now the effect of semiotic forms, not its source.

Do women and men speak the

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/oct/01/gender.books

Deborah Cameron. Extracted from The Myth of Mars and Venus published, by Oxford University Press in hardback at £10.99. To order a copy for £9.99 with free UK p&p go to guardian.co.uk/bookshop or call 0870 836 0875.

covers a lot of ground, like how manufacturing jobs have declined, service jobs have risen, and the myth that women are better at verbal skills means that employers will discriminate against men.

Says that "evolutionary biology" justifies modern discrimination by appealing to genetics.

The folk belief persists because it justifies prejudicial behavior.

Common Writing Problems: Focus, Organization, Development, Style, and Correctness

Ch 4 of What the Writing Tutor Needs to Know

My goal is to create a more thoughtful writer. Their goal is to make an A.

They need a clear thesis and to develop meaningful arguments. Short paragraphs are signs of a weak argument and undeveloped ideas.

Setting the Agenda for the Next 30 Minutes

by Macauley

The tutor and student should create a road map of what they want to accomplish. This is an agenda that the student can take with them should the tutor not be able to get to all the points in 50 minutes.

Tutoring in Unfamiliar Subjects

by Alexis Greiner

First ask what the assignment is. Then ask for the main points. Read it with a focus, paying attention to the situation--why is she writing it? Test out ideas: "I got this from this paragraph. Is that what you meant?" Ask thought-provoking questions and build on the client's response.

Working with ESL Writers

ch 9

NNS don't just come to get their grammar checked, they don't need more basics, you should work on higher-order concerns below later-level concerns, you should have a rulebook handy, and you can teach anything.

What Tutoring Writing Isn't

from Tutoring Writing: A Practical Guide for Conferences, by Donald A. McAndrew and Thomas J. Reigstad. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, 2001. 160 pages.

The editor-journalist relationship is abusive. Don't model this relationship.
Don't be a therapist. It can be tough if students write about their feelings.
Don't tutor about a "dead" paper, one that the writer is no longer working on.

The Tutoring Process

Ch 3

ALLYN BACON GUIDE TO PEER TUTORING

Don't edit as you would a friend's paper. First break the ice, then ask some questions, then have them read aloud. End with asking them what they will do next.

Whose speech is more standard?

Penelope Eckert 2003

The linguistic forms we consider "feminine" actually indicate something else, like refinement, and that only indirectly indicates femininity.

But at Belten High in Detroit, bad grammar is associated with rebelliousness. Burnouts sue it a lot more than jocks. Jock girls use use almost no negative concord; burnout girls use it almost exclusively. It signals their rebellious attitude toward authority and school.

Nonstandard grammar is associated with toughness, and lower class girls must be tough. In "the halls of the academe or government," women cannot convey a folksy demeanor because they are more easily discredited as professionals than men. They cannot chance it.

Sex and Covert Prestige

by Trudgill 70s

In Norwich, as one goes down the social class ladder, instances of -in increase and instances of -ing decrease. But at each stratus, more males use -in than females.

In Norwich, women over-report their use of status-ful forms and men under-report them. In general, people form Norwich under-report more than Labov's New York informants.

A cultural approach to male-female miscommunication

by Maltz and Borker, 1982.

Women and men are acculturated in different ways, and this difference in acculturation accounts for differences in their manners of communication.

Norm-makers, norm-breakers: uses of speech by men and women in a malagasy community

by Elinor Keenan 1974?

In Madagascar there are communities of Malagasy. Indirect speech styles are valued and associated with tradition.

Men generally use formal and indirect speech styles. Women are able to use direct styles and men bring along their wives if a complaint needs to be made or to ask for assistance from strangers.